| 聖雄甘地 | |
|---|---|
 | |
| 出生 | 莫罕達斯·卡拉姆昌德·甘地 Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi 1869年10月2日 |
甘地Mahātmā Gāndhī 1869~1948
10月2日
甘地（मोहनदास करमचंद गांधी）
（西元1869.10.2—1948.1.30）
印度思想家與革命家。藉由「非暴力」的公民不合作，帶領印度脫離英國的殖民統治，邁向獨立。其哲學思想影響了全世界爭取和平變革的國際運動。遭到印度教狂熱分子槍擊身亡。被尊稱為「聖雄」。
我們非常了解，真理的道路既狹窄又筆直，而博愛的道路也是相同的。想要走在這樣的小徑上，必須像走在劍刃上同樣小心。空中飛人集中全副精神，在緊繃的鋼索上跳著舞。若要在真理與博愛的小徑上前進的話，就必須比他們更加注意，即便稍稍分神，都會墜落下來。唯有不斷的精進，才能夠自我實現真理與博愛。
節自《甘地聖典》
若要實踐博愛，就必須具備最大的勇氣。節自《甘地聖典》
寫 Mahātmā Gāndhī，印度國父，印度民族主義運動和國大黨領袖，他帶領印度獨立，脫離英國殖民地統治。他的非暴力（अहिंसा，ahimsā）哲學思想影響了全世界的民族主義者和那些爭取和平變革的國際運動。
成功的印度獨立運動亦激發起其他殖民地人民為國家獨立而奮鬥，最終大英帝國分崩離析，取而代之的是大英國協[2]。甘地的主要信念是「真理堅固」，此鼓舞了其他民主運動人士，例如馬丁·路德·金、翁山蘇姬和曼德拉等人。他經常說他的價值觀很簡單，那就是（是從傳統的印度教信仰演化來的）真理（सत्य，satya）及非暴力。
目錄
1人生
1.1早年
1.2南非的公民權利運動
1.3印度獨立運動
1.4第二次世界大戰時期
1.5印巴分治與遇刺
2人生信條
3個人榮譽
4藝術作品中的甘地
5評論及其他
5.1國際非暴力日
5.2對東亞各地區的影響
5.2.1對20世紀初的亞洲
5.2.1.1台灣
6參見
7注釋
8延伸閱讀
9外部連結
人生
2010.4.3 周四聽朋友說 張君勱先生的書之一還會再出一本 想起1971年出的這本他1938年寫的大縮寫本 (原著600多頁 是政治英文中名著 作者尼赫魯8個月在月在監獄中寫成賈瓦哈拉爾·尼赫魯
維基百科，自由的百科全書
| 賈瓦哈拉爾·尼赫魯 जवाहरलाल नेहरू | |
| |
| 第1任印度總理 | |
|---|---|
| 任期 1947年8月15日 – 1964年5月27日 | |
| 繼任 | 古爾扎里·拉爾·南達 |
| | |
| 出生 | 1889年11月14日 印度北方邦安拉阿巴德 |
| 逝世 | 1964年5月27日 印度新德里 |
| 政黨 | 國大黨 |
賈瓦哈拉爾·尼赫魯（जवाहरलाल नेहरू, Javāharlāl Nehrū 1889年11月14日－1964年5月27日）是印度獨立後的第一任總理。國大黨主席。
尼赫魯出身於克什米爾的一個富裕婆羅門家庭，在16歲以前由私人家庭教師教育，1905年入英國哈羅公學，1907年入劍橋大學三一學院，1910年獲榮譽學位，1912年在倫敦內殿法學會取得律師資格，回國擔任律師。1916年在家庭的包辦下，和一個克什米爾商人的17歲女兒結婚。1917年生下他們的女兒英迪拉·甘地。
1916年尼赫魯在國大黨年會上第一次遇見甘地，甘地堅持的爭取印度獨立運動對他有很大影響，和國大黨的關係日益密切。1921年國大黨被英國統治當局宣布為非法，尼赫魯第一次被捕入獄。1923年和1927年兩次擔任國大黨總書記，曾到印度各地視察，發現農民的極端貧困。
1926年尼赫魯訪問蘇聯，對馬克思主義和社會主義制度感到興趣。1929年當選國大黨主席，宣布黨的主要目標是爭取印度完全獨立。以後他8次被捕，先後住獄9年，在獄中他也研究馬克思主義，撰寫書籍。1932年因發動不合作運動和甘地一起被捕。1936年，他的妻子因肺炎在瑞士去世。1940年再次和甘地一起被捕。1942年國大黨通過要求英國撤離印度的決議，他又一次被捕。1947年印度獨立，尼赫魯開始任總理，直到他去世，長達18年，同時兼任國大黨主席。
尼赫魯在印度實行一種基本為資本主義混合社會主義計劃經濟成分的經濟政策，仿照蘇聯實行五年計劃，尼赫魯當政時期印度的經濟增長平均每年為4%，超過當時美國和其他新獨立國家的經濟增長速度，但不如西歐和其他社會主義國家的增長速度。尼赫魯強調對貧民和流浪者給予必要的社會關懷，所以在印度人民中威信很高。
在政治體制上，尼赫魯仿照英國體制，包括司法、立法議會、政府和教育系統。
尼赫魯領導改革了古代的印度民法，維護寡婦的財產繼承權，改革印度教，從法律上取消種姓制度。他對內政策的四大原則是：民主、社會主義、團結和現世主義。
尼赫魯堅決反對殖民主義，是不結盟運動和和平共處五項原則（潘查西拉）的創始人之一。
尼赫魯具有強烈的民族主義傾向，當印度獨立時，英國殖民當局將印度劃分為巴基斯坦、克什米爾和印度三部分，甘地因為同意這種劃分被極端民族主義者暗殺。尼赫魯當政後，立即和巴基斯坦展開爭奪克什米爾的戰爭，最後以各自佔領一部分結束，此後仍然因此發生多次印巴戰爭。他以武力收複印度境內的葡萄牙殖民地果阿。中國修建新藏公路後，尼赫魯主張麥克馬洪線為中印分界線，經談判無效後出兵進攻爭議地區，於1962年發生中印戰爭，這次戰爭印度在軍事上慘敗， 但中國突然撤兵，印度仍然佔有麥克馬洪線以南土地。
印度將尼赫魯的生日11月14日定為兒童節，以紀念他對兒童的關懷。
1937年加爾各答的《現代評論》上曾發表過一封化名作者的來信，警告國大黨成員提防主席尼赫魯，聲稱他有「獨裁的傾向」，在他「變成凱撒」以前要對他進行嚴格的審查。許多年以後證實，這封信是尼赫魯自己寫的。
Jawaharlal Nehru
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Jawaharlal Nehru | |
Nehru, ca. 1927 | |
| | |
| In office 15 August 1947 – 27 May 1964 | |
| Monarch | King George VI (until 26 January 1950) |
|---|---|
| President | Rajendra Prasad and Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |
| Governor–General | Louis Mountbatten C. Rajagopalachari |
| Preceded by | Position Created |
| Succeeded by | Gulzarilal Nanda (interim) |
| | |
| In office 15 August 1947 – 27 May 1964 | |
| Preceded by | Position Created |
| Succeeded by | Gulzarilal Nanda |
| | |
| In office 8 October 1958 – 17 November 1959 | |
| Preceded by | T. T. Krishnamachari |
| Succeeded by | Morarji Desai |
| | |
| Born | 14 November 1889 Allahabad, United Provinces, British India |
| Died | 27 May 1964 (aged 74) New Delhi, India |
| Nationality | Indian |
| Spouse(s) | Kamala Nehru |
| Children | Indira Gandhi |
| Alma mater | Trinity College, Cambridge |
| Profession | Barrister |
| Religion | Hindu-Adi Dharm (Later Atheist) |
| Signature |  |
Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindi: जवाहरलाल नेहरू, pronounced [dʒəʋaːɦərˈlaːl ˈneːɦruː]; 14 November 1889–27 May 1964[1]) was an Indian statesman who was the first (and to date the longest-serving) prime minister of India, from 1947 until 1964. A leading figure in the Indian independence movement, Nehru was elected by the Congress Party to assume office as independent India's first Prime Minister, and re-elected when the Congress Party won India's first general election in 1952. As one of the founders of the Non-aligned Movement, he was also an important figure in the international politics of the post-war era. He is frequently referred to as Pandit Nehru ("pandit" being a Sanskrit and Hindi honorific meaning "scholar" or "teacher") and, specifically in India, as Panditji (with "-ji" being a suffix to the honorific).
The son of a wealthy Indian barrister and politician, Motilal Nehru, Nehru became a leader of the left wing of the Indian National Congress when still fairly young. Rising to become Congress President, under the mentorship of Mahatma Gandhi, Nehru was a charismatic and radical leader, advocating complete independence from the British Empire. In the long struggle for Indian independence, in which he was a key player, Nehru was eventually recognized as Gandhi's political heir. Throughout his life, Nehru was also an advocate for Fabian socialism and the public sector as the means by which long-standing challenges of economic development could be addressed by poorer nations.
Contents[hide] |
[edit] Education
Nehru was educated in Britain; at the independent boy's school, Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge.
[edit] Life and career
Nehru was given the singular honour of raising the flag of independent India in New Delhi on 15 August 1947, the day India gained Independence. Nehru's appreciation of the virtues of parliamentary democracy, secularism and liberalism, coupled with his concerns for the poor and underprivileged, are recognised to have guided him in formulating policies that influence India to this day. They also reflect the socialist origins of his worldview. His long tenure was instrumental in shaping the traditions and structures of independent India. He is sometimes referred to as the "Architect of Modern India"[citation needed]. His daughter, Indira Gandhi, and grandson, Rajiv Gandhi, also served as Prime Ministers of India.
Gita Sahgal – a writer and journalist who addresses issues of feminism, fundamentalism, and racism, director of prize-winning documentary films, and human rights activist – is his grand-niece.
[edit] Role in Indian Independence Movement
Jawaharlal Nehru returned to India in 1912 and started legal practice. He married Kamala Kaul through a marriage arranged by his parents in 1916. Jawaharlal Nehru joined All India Home Rule League in 1917. His real initiation into politics came two years later when he came in contact with Mahatma Gandhi in 1919. At that time, Mahatma Gandhi had launched a campaign against the Rowlatt Act. Nehru was instantly attracted to Gandhi's commitment for active but peaceful, civil disobedience. Jawaharlal Nehru was elected President of the Allahabad Municipal Corporation in 1924, and served for two years as the city's chief executive.
From 1926 to 1928, Jawaharlal served as the General Secretary of the United Provinces Congress Committee. In 1928-29, the Congress's annual session under President Motilal Nehru was held. During that session Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose backed a call for full political independence, while Motilal Nehru and others wanted dominion status within the British Empire. To resolve the point, Gandhi proposed that the British be given two years to grant India dominion status and, if they did not, the Congress would launch a national struggle for full, political independence. Nehru and Bose reduced that two-year window of opportunity to one year. The British did not respond.
In December, 1929, Congress's annual session was held in Lahore, and Jawaharlal Nehru was elected as the President of the Congress Party. During that session, a resolution demanding India's independence was passed and on 26 January 1930 in Lahore, Jawaharlal Nehru unfurled free India's flag. And Gandhiji gave the call for a Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930. The movement eventually forced the British Government to acknowledge the need for major political reforms and was ultimately a great success.
When the British promulgated the Government of India Act 1935, the Congress Party decided to contest elections. Nehru stayed out of the elections, but campaigned vigorously nationwide for the party. The Congress formed governments in almost every province, and won the largest number of seats in the Central Assembly. Nehru was elected to the Congress presidency in 1936, 1937, and 1946, and came to occupy a position in the nationalist movement second only to that of Gandhi. He was arrested in 1942 during the Quit India Movement. Released in 1945, he took a leading part in the negotiations that culminated in the emergence of the dominions of India and Pakistan in August 1947, resulting in the Partition of India.
[edit] Successor To Gandhi
On 15 January 1941 Gandhiji said, "Some say Pandit Nehru and I were estranged. It will require much more than difference of opinion to estrange us. We had differences from the time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say now that not Rajaji (Chakravarti Rajagopalachari) but Nehru will be my successor." [2]
[edit] India's first Prime Minister
Nehru and his colleagues had been released as the British Cabinet Mission arrived to propose plans for transfer of power.
Once elected, Nehru headed an interim government, which was impaired by outbreaks of communal violence and political disorder, and the opposition of the Muslim League led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who were demanding a separate Muslim state of Pakistan. After failed bids to form coalitions, Nehru reluctantly supported the partition of India, according to a plan released by the British on 3 June 1947. He took office as the Prime Minister of India on 15 August, and delivered his inaugural address titled "A Tryst With Destiny"
"Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially. At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation, long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still larger cause of humanity."[2]
However, this period was marked with intense communal violence. This violence swept across the Punjab region, Delhi, Bengal and other parts of India. Nehru conducted joint tours[citation needed] with Pakistani leaders to encourage peace and calm angry and disillusioned refugees. Nehru would work with Maulana Azad and other Muslim leaders to safeguard and encourage Muslims to remain in India. The violence of the time deeply affected Nehru, who called for a ceasefire[citation needed] and UN intervention to stop the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. Fearing communal reprisals, Nehru also hesitated in supporting the annexation of Hyderabad State.
In the years following independence, Nehru frequently turned to his daughter Indira to look after him and manage his personal affairs. Under his leadership, the Congress won an overwhelming majority in the elections of 1952. Indira moved into Nehru's official residence to attend to him and became his constant companion in his travels across India and the world. Indira would virtually become Nehru's chief of staff.
[edit] Economic policies
Nehru presided over the introduction of a modified, Indian version of state planning and control over the economy. Creating the Planning commission of India, Nehru drew up the first Five-Year Plan in 1951, which charted the government's investments in industries and agriculture. Increasing business and income taxes, Nehru envisaged a mixed economy in which the government would manage strategic industries such as mining, electricity and heavy industries, serving public interest and a check to private enterprise. Nehru pursued land redistribution and launched programmes to build irrigation canals, dams and spread the use of fertilizers to increase agricultural production. He also pioneered a series of community development programs aimed at spreading diverse cottage industries and increasing efficiency into rural India. While encouraging the construction of large dams (which Nehru called the "new temples of India"), irrigation works and the generation of hydroelectricity, Nehru also launched India's programme to harness nuclear energy.
For most of Nehru's term as prime minister, India would continue to face serious food shortages despite progress and increases in agricultural production. Nehru's industrial policies, summarised in the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, encouraged the growth of diverse manufacturing and heavy industries,[3] yet state planning, controls and regulations began to impair productivity, quality and profitability. Although the Indian economy enjoyed a steady rate of growth, chronic unemployment amidst widespread poverty continued to plague the population.
[edit] Education and social reform
Jawaharlal Nehru was a passionate advocate of education for India's children and youth, believing it essential for India's future progress. His government oversaw the establishment of many institutions of higher learning, including the All India Institute of Medical Sciences, the Indian Institutes of Technology and the Indian Institutes of Management. Nehru also outlined a commitment in his five-year plans to guarantee free and compulsory primary education to all of India's children. For this purpose, Nehru oversaw the creation of mass village enrollment programmes and the construction of thousands of schools. Nehru also launched initiatives such as the provision of free milk and meals to children in order to fight malnutrition. Adult education centres, vocational and technical schools were also organised for adults, especially in the rural areas.
Under Nehru, the Indian Parliament enacted many changes to Hindu law to criminalize caste discrimination and increase the legal rights and social freedoms of women[4][5][6] [7] . A system of reservations in government services and educational institutions was created to eradicate the social inequalities and disadvantages faced by peoples of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Nehru also championed secularism and religious harmony, increasing the representation of minorities in government.
[edit] National security and foreign policy
Nehru led newly independent India from 1947 to 1964, during its first years of freedom from British rule. Both the United States and the Union Soviet Socialist Republic competed to make India an ally throughout the Cold War.
On the international scene, Nehru was a champion of pacifism and a strong supporter of the United Nations. He pioneered the policy of non-alignment and co-founded the Non-Aligned Movement of nations professing neutrality between the rival blocs of nations led by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. Recognising the People's Republic of China soon after its founding (while most of the Western bloc continued relations with the Republic of China), Nehru argued for its inclusion in the United Nations and refused to brand the Chinese as the aggressors in their conflict with Korea.[8] He sought to establish warm and friendly relations with China despite the invasion of Tibet in 1950, and hoped to act as an intermediary to bridge the gulf and tensions between the communist states and the Western bloc.
Meanwhile, Nehru had promised in 1948 to hold a plebiscite in Kashmir under the auspices of the U.N. but, as Pakistan failed to pull back troops in accordance with the UN resolution and as Nehru grew increasingly wary of the U.N., he declined to hold a plebiscite in 1953. He ordered the arrest of the Kashmiri politician Sheikh Abdullah, whom he had previously supported but now suspected of harbouring separatist ambitions; Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad replaced him.
His policy of pacifism and appeasement with respect to China also came unraveled when China annexed Aksai Chin, the region of Kashmir adjoining Tibet in 1962 that led to the Sino-Indian war.
Nehru was hailed by many for working to defuse global tensions and the threat of nuclear weapons[9]. He commissioned the first study of the human effects of nuclear explosions, and campaigned ceaselessly for the abolition of what he called "these frightful engines of destruction." He also had pragmatic reasons for promoting de-nuclearisation, fearing that a nuclear arms race would lead to over-militarisation that would be unaffordable for developing countries such as his own[10].
In 1956 he had criticised the joint invasion of the Suez Canal by the British, French and Israelis. Suspicion and distrust cooled relations between India and the U.S., which suspected Nehru of tacitly supporting the Soviet Union. Accepting the arbitration of the UK and World Bank, Nehru signed the Indus Water Treaty in 1960 with Pakistani ruler Ayub Khan to resolve long-standing disputes about sharing the resources of the major rivers of the Punjab region.
[edit] Final years
Nehru had led the Congress to a major victory in the 1957 elections, but his government was facing rising problems and criticism. Disillusioned by intra-party corruption and bickering, Nehru contemplated resigning but continued to serve. The election of his daughter Indira as Congress President in 1959 aroused criticism for alleged nepotism[citation needed], although actually Nehru had disapproved of her election, partly because he considered it smacked of "dynastism"; he said, indeed it was "wholly undemocratic and an undesirable thing", and refused her a position in his cabinet[11]. Indira herself was at loggerheads with her father over policy; most notably, she used his oft-stated personal deference to the Congress Working Committee to push through the dismissal of the Communist Party of India government in the state of Kerala, over his own objections[11]. Nehru began to be frequently embarrassed by her ruthlessness and disregard for parliamentary tradition, and was "hurt" by what he saw as an assertiveness with no purpose other than to stake out an identity independent of her father[1].
Although the Pancha Sila (Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence) was the basis of the 1954 Sino-Indian treaty over Tibet, in later years, Nehru's foreign policy suffered through increasing Chinese antagonism over border disputes and Nehru's decision to grant asylum to the Dalai Lama. After years of failed negotiations, Nehru authorized the Indian Army to annex Goa from Portugal in 1961. See liberation of Goa. While increasing his popularity, Nehru received criticism for opting for military action.
In the 1962 elections, Nehru led the Congress to victory yet with a diminished majority. Opposition parties ranging from the right-wing Bharatiya Jana Sangh and Swatantra Party, socialists and the Communist Party of India performed well.
In a matter of months, the border disputes with China turned into open conflict. Nehru assumed that as former victims of imperialism (India being a colony itself) they shared a sense of solidarity, as expressed in the phrase "Hindi-Chini bhai bhai" (Indians and Chinese are brothers). He was dedicated to the ideals of brotherhood and solidarity among developing nations. Nehru, credulously, did not believe that one fellow Socialist country would attack another; and in any event, he felt secure behind the impregnable wall of ice that is the Himalayas. Both proved to be severe miscalculations of China's intentions and military capabilities. Following reports of his intention to confront Chinese occupation of the disputed areas—summarised in a memorable statement that he had asked the Army to "throw them (Chinese) out" - China launched a pre-emptive attack.[12]
In a matter of days, a Chinese invasion of northeastern India exposed the weaknesses of India's military as Chinese forces came as far as Assam. Widely criticised for his government's insufficient attention to defence, Nehru was forced to sack the defence minister Krishna Menon and seek U.S. military aid. Nehru's health began declining steadily, and he was forced to spend months recuperating in Kashmir through 1963. Some historians attribute this dramatic decline to his surprise and chagrin over the invasion of India by the Chinese, which he perceived as a betrayal of trust.[13] Upon his return from Kashmir in May 1964, Nehru suffered a stroke and later a heart attack. He died in the early hours of 27 May 1964. Nehru was cremated in accordance with Hindu rites at the Shantivana on the banks of the Yamuna River, witnessed by hundreds of thousands of mourners who had flocked into the streets of Delhi and the cremation grounds.
[edit] Legacy
As India's first Prime minister and external affairs minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a major role in shaping modern India's government and political culture along with sound foreign policy. He is praised for creating a system providing universal primary education, reaching children in the farthest corners of rural India. Nehru's education policy is also credited for the development of world-class educational institutions such as the All India Institute of Medical Sciences [14], Indian Institutes of Technology,[15] and the Indian Institutes of Management.
| "Nehru was a great man... Nehru gave to Indians an image of themselves that I don't think others might have succeeded in doing." - Sir Isaiah Berlin[16] |
Nehru is credited for establishing a widespread system of affirmative action to provide equal opportunities and rights for India's ethnic groups, minorities, women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes[17][18]. Nehru's passion for egalitarianism meant that he put the state to work to try and end widespread practices of discrimination against women and depressed classes[19], though with limited success in his lifetime.
Nevertheless, Nehru's stance as a unfailing nationalist led him to also implement policies which stressed commonality among Indians while still appreciating regional diversities. This proved particularly important as post-Independence differences surfaced since British withdrawal from the subcontinent prompted regional leaders to no longer relate to one another as allies against a common adversary. While differences of culture and, especially, language threatened the unity of the new nation, Nehru established programs such as the National Book Trust and the National Literary Academy which promoted the translation of regional literatures between languages and also organized the transfer of materials between regions. In pursuit of a single, unified India, Nehru warned, "Integrate or perish."[20]
[edit] Commemoration
In his lifetime, Jawaharlal Nehru enjoyed an iconic status in India and was widely admired across the world for his idealism and statesmanship. His birthday, 14 November, is celebrated in India as Chacha Nehru (Children's Day) in recognition of his lifelong passion and work for the welfare, education and development of children and young people. Children across India remember him as Chacha Nehru (Uncle Nehru). Nehru remains a popular symbol of the Congress party which frequently celebrates his memory. Congress leaders and activists often emulate his style of clothing, especially the Gandhi cap, and his mannerisms. Nehru's ideals and policies continue to shape the Congress party's manifesto and core political philosophy. An emotional attachment to his legacy was instrumental in the rise of his daughter Indira to leadership of the Congress party and the national government.
Many documentaries about Nehru's life have been produced. He has also been portrayed in fictionalised films. The canonical performance is probably that of Roshan Seth, who played him three times: in Richard Attenborough's 1982 film Gandhi, Shyam Benegal's 1988 television series Bharat Ek Khoj, based on Nehru's The Discovery of India, and in a 2007 TV film entitled The Last Days of the Raj.[21] In Ketan Mehta's film Sardar, Nehru was portrayed by Benjamin Gilani. Nehru's personal preference for the sherwani ensured that it continues to be considered formal wear in North India today; aside from lending his name to a kind of cap, the Nehru jacket is named in his honour due to his preference for that style.
Numerous public institutions and memorials across India are dedicated to Nehru's memory. The Jawaharlal Nehru University in Delhi is among the most prestigious universities in India. The Jawaharlal Nehru Port near the city of Mumbai is a modern port and dock designed to handle a huge cargo and traffic load. Nehru's residence in Delhi is preserved as the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library. The Nehru family homes at Anand Bhavan and Swaraj Bhavan are also preserved to commemorate Nehru and his family's legacy.
[edit] Writings
Nehru was a prolific writer in English and wrote a number of books, such as The Discovery of India, Glimpses of World History, and his autobiography, Towards Freedom.
[edit] Towards Freedom
 | It has been suggested that An Autobiography (Nehru) be merged into this article or section. (Discuss) |
Written in 1936, it ran nine editions in the first year alone. "Towards Freedom" is also known as "An Autobiography."
[edit] Criticism
D. D. Kosambi, a well-known Marxist historian criticized Nehru in his article for the bourgeoisie class exploitation of Nehru's socialist ideology for its own purposes.[22]
Jaswant Singh, a former BJP leader, viewed Nehru, not Mohammad Ali Jinnah, as causing the partition of India, mostly referring to his highly centralised policies for an independent India in 1947, which Jinnah opposed in favour of a more decentralised India. The split between the two was among the causes of partition. It is believed that personal animosity between the two leaders led to the partition of India.[23][24] Singh was later expelled from the BJP for having favourable views on Jinnah.[23]
[edit] See also
- Political Families of The World
- The Discovery of India written by Jawaharlal Nehru
- Glimpses of World History written by Jawaharlal Nehru
- Tryst with destiny the historic speech made by Jawaharlal Nehru, considered in modern India to be a landmark oration that captures the essence of the triumphant culmination of the hundred-year Indian freedom struggle against the British Empire in India.
- Letters from a Father to His Daughter a collection of letters written by Jawaharlal Nehru to his daughter Indira.
- Nehru jacket
[edit] Notes
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- ^ a b Marlay, Ross; Clark D. Neher (1999). Patriots and Tyrants: Ten Asian Leaders. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 368.
- ^ Nehru, Jawaharlal (2006-08-08). "Wikisource" (PHP). http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Tryst_With_Destiny. Retrieved 2006-08-08.
- ^ Farmer, B. H. (1993). An Introduction to South Asia. Routledge. pp. 120.
- ^ Som, Reba (1994-02). "Jawaharlal Nehru and the Hindu Code: A Victory of Symbol over Substance?". Modern Asian Studies 28 (1): 165–194. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00011732. http://www.jstor.org/stable/312925. Retrieved 2008-05-29.
- ^ Basu, Srimati (1999). She Comes to Take Her Rights: Indian Women, Property, and Propriety. SUNY Press. pp. 3. "The Hindu Code Bill was visualised by Ambedkar and Nehru as the flagship of modernisation and a radical revision of Hindu law...it is widely regarded as dramatic benchmark legislation giving Hindu women equitable if not superior entitlements as legal subjects."
- ^ Kulke, Hermann; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 328. "One subject that particularly interested Nehru was the reform of Hindu law, particularly with regard to the rights of Hindu women..."
- ^ Forbes, Geraldine; Geraldine Hancock Forbes, Gordon Johnson (1999). Women in Modern India. Cambridge University Press. pp. 115. "It is our birthright to demand equitable adjustment of Hindu law...."
- ^ Robert Sherrod (19 January 1963). Nehru:The Great Awakening journal=The Saturday Evening Post. 236. pp. 60–67.
- ^ Bhatia, Vinod (1989). Jawaharlal Nehru, as Scholars of Socialist Countries See Him. Panchsheel Publishers. pp. 131.
- ^ Dua, B. D.; James Manor (1994). Nehru to the Nineties: The Changing Office of Prime Minister in India. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. pp. 261.
- ^ a b Frank, Katherine (2002). Indira: The Life of Indira Nehru Gandhi. Houghton Mifflin Books. pp. 250.
- ^ "A powder-keg on the border with China". Rediff. 2008-02-26. http://in.rediff.com/news/2008/feb/26guest.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
- ^ Embree, Ainslie T., ed (1988). Encyclopedia of Asian History. 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 98–100.
- ^ www.aiims.ac.in
- ^ [1]
- ^ Ramin Jahanbegloo, Conversations with Isaiah Berlin (London 2000), pages 201-2
- ^ Jackson, Thomas William (2007). From Civil Rights to Human Rights. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 100. ISBN 0-8122-3969-5.
- ^ Manor, J.; Dua, B.D. (1994). Nehru to the Nineties: The Changing Office of Prime Minister in India. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. p. 240.
- ^ Zachariah, Benjamin (2004). Nehru. New York: Routledge. pp. 265. ISBN 0-415-25016-1.
- ^ Harrison, Selig S. (July 1956). ""The Challenge to Indian Nationalism"". Foreign Affairs 34 (2): 620–636.
- ^ The Last Days of the Raj (2007) (TV)
- ^ The Bourgeoisie Comes of Age in India
- ^ a b Thapar, Karan (17 August 2009). Gandhi, Jinnah both failed: Jaswant. IBN Live.
- ^ After Advani, Jaswant turns Jinnah admirer. The Economic Times. 17 August 2009.
[edit] References
- A Tryst With Destiny historic speech made by Jawaharlal Nehru on 14 August 1947
- Nehru: The Invention of India by Shashi Tharoor (November 2003) Arcade Books ISBN 1-55970-697-X
- Jawaharlal Nehru (Edited by S. Gopal and Uma Iyengar) (July 2003) The Essential Writings of Jawaharlal Nehru Oxford University Press ISBN 0195653246
- Autobiography:Toward freedom, Oxford University Press
- Jawaharlal Nehru: Life and work by M. Chalapathi Rau, National Book Club (1 January 1966)
- Jawaharlal Nehru by M. Chalapathi Rau. [New Delhi] Publications Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India [1973]
- Letters from a father to his daughter by Jawaharlal Nehru, Children's Book Trust
- Nehru: A Political Biography by Michael Brecher (1959). London:Oxford University Press.
- After Nehru, Who by Welles Hangen (1963). London: Rupert Hart-Davis.
- Nehru: The Years of Power by Geoffrey Tyson (1966). London: Pall Mall Press.
- Independence and After: A collection of the more important speeches of Jawaharlal Nehru from September 1946 to May 1949 (1949). Delhi: The Publications Division, Government of India.
- Commanding Heights. by Joseph Stanislaw and Daniel A. Yergin. (Simon & Schuster, Inc: New York), 1998. [3]
- "The Challenge to Indian Nationalism." by Selig S. Harrison Foreign Affairs vol. 34, no. 2 (1956): 620-636.
- “Nehru, Jawaharlal.” by Ainslie T. Embree, ed., and the Asia Society. Encyclopedia of Asian History. Vol. 3. Charles Scribner’s Sons. New York. (1988): 98-100.
- “Nehru: The Great Awakening.” by Robert Sherrod. Saturday Evening Post vol. 236, no. 2 (19 January 1963): 60-67.
[edit] External links
 | Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jawaharlal Nehru |
 | Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Jawaharlal Nehru |
- Jawahar Lal Nehru's Biography
- Jawaharlal Nehru University
- Nehru biography at Harappa.com
- India Today's profile of Nehru
- Nehru's legacy to India
- Nehru on Communalism
| 書刊名/作者 | 尼赫魯傳/張君勱撰 |
|---|---|
| 版本 | 台一版 |
| 出版地/出版者/出版年 | 台北市/臺灣商務/民60 |
| 稽核項 | [3],65面/18.5公分 |
| ISBN/裝訂方式/價格 | 平裝/贈閱 |
| 叢書項 | 張君勱先生遺著叢書 |
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